1 Definition, scope and importance of chemical ecology

Introduction

Definition

Scope of chemical ecology

Importance of chemical ecology

2 Primary metabolites

Amino acids

Carbohydrates

Monosaccharides

Disaccharides

Polyols

Polyester polyols

Polycarbonate polyols

Acrylic polyols

Oligosaccharides

Polysaccharides

Storage polysaccharides

Structural polysaccharides

Glycemic Index and Glycemic Load

Proteins

Enzymes

Lipids

Fatty a30cyls

Glycerolipids

Glycerophospholipids

Sphingolipids

Saccharolipids

Polyketides

Sterol lipids

Prenol lipids

Vitamins

Nucleic acids

3 Secondary metabolites

Alkaloids

True alkaloids

Protoalkaloids

Peptide and cyclopeptide alkaloids

Pseudoalkaloids

Classification of alkaloids based on chemical structure

Heterocyclic alkaloids

Non-heterocyclic alkaloids

Important alkaloids

Morphine

Cocaine

Cannabis

Caffeine

Atropine

Nicotine

Quinine

Ephedrine

Ergotamine

Mescaline

Adrenaline

Colchicine

Cathine

Capsaicine

Psychoactive non-alkaloid substances

Lysergic acid diethylamide

Methylene-dioxy-methamphetamine

Terpenoids

Acyclic (linear) terpenoids

Cyclic terpenoids

Monocyclic terpenoids

Bicyclic terpenoids

Tricyclic terpenoids

Tetracyclic terpenoids

Pentacyclic terpenoids

Macrocyclic terpenoids

Phenolics

Phenolic acids

Flavonoids

Tannins

Lignin

Stilbenes

Lignans

Phenolic amides

Coumarins

Xanthones

Betalains

Glucosinolates

Cyanogenic glycosides

4 Semio-chemicals  

Pheromones

Releaser pheromones

Signaler pheromones

Modulator pheromones

Primer pheromones

Functions of pheromones

Allelochemicals

Allomones

Kairomones

Synomones

5 Air pollution

Air pollutants

Carbon monoxide

Carbon dioxide

Nitrogen oxides

Sulfur oxides

Ammonia

Chlorofluorocarbons

Hydrochlorofluorocarbons

Hydrofluorocarbons

Volatile organic compounds

Particulate matter

Persistent organic pollutants

Air pollution control measures

6 Heavy metal pollution – effects on plants and animals – clean-up of heavy metals

Heavy metal pollution in plants: positive and

negative effects

Arsenic

Cobalt

Copper

Iron

Manganese

Nickel

Zinc

Aluminum

Cadmium

Chromium

Lead

Mercury

Heavy metal pollution in animals: positive and negative effects

Arsenic

Cobalt

Copper

Iron

Manganese

Nickel

Zinc

Aluminum

Cadmium

Chromium

Lead

Mercury

Clean-up of heavy metal contamination in the environment

Chemical precipitation

Ion exchange

Adsorption

Membrane filtration

Bioremediation

Phyto-remediation

Phyto-extraction and phyto-mining

Phyto-degradation

Phyto-stabilization

Phyto-volatilization

Rhizo-filtration

Microbial-remediation

7 Biogenic volatiles and their role in ecological interactions  

Role of biogenic volatile organic compounds in plant reproduction

Role of biogenic volatile organic compounds in plant defense against biotic stresses

Role of biogenic volatile organic compounds in plant defense against abiotic stresses

Role of biogenic volatile organic compounds in the atmosphere

Air pollution effects on biogenic volatiles

Ozone

Nitrogen oxides

Sulfur dioxide

Particulate matter

8 Atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations: Plant-insect herbivore interactions  

Effects of elevated CO2 levels on plant-beetle herbivory interactions

Effects of elevated CO2 levels on plant-bee herbivory interactions

Effects of elevated CO2 levels on plant-wasps herbivory interactions

Effects of elevated CO2 levels on plant-butterfly herbivory interactions

Effects of elevated CO2 levels on plant-moth herbivory interactions

C3 plants and insect herbivory interactions

C4 plants and insect herbivory interactions

Effects of elevated CO2 on trees

Effects of elevated CO2 on grasses

Effects of elevated CO2 on weeds

Overall effects of elevated CO2 on plant-insect herbivore interactions

9 Soil chemical ecology: Allelopathy and allelochemicals

Soil chemical ecology

Allelopathy

Root allelopathy

Bark allelopathy

Stem allelopathy

Leaf allelopathy

Pollen allelopathy

Allelochemicals

10 Weed chemical ecology

Asteraceae family

Amaranthaceae family

Convolvulaceae family

Fabaceae family

Poaceae family

Polygonaceae family

Verbenaceae family

Potential for natural herbicides

Chemical weed control challenges

11 Chemical defense in organisms of terrestrial and aquatic environments

Chemical defense in organisms of terrestrial environments

Chemical defense in prokaryotes

Chemical defense in fungi

Chemical defense in lichens

Chemical defense in terrestrial plants

Chemical defense in terrestrial animals

Chemical defense in organisms of aquatic environments

Chemical defense in freshwater organisms

Freshwater plants

Freshwater bacteria and other microbes

Freshwater ciliates

Freshwater sponges

Freshwater fish

Freshwater frogs

Chemical defense in marine organisms

Marine invertebrates

Marine vertebrates

12 Drought impacts on chemical ecology plants

Drought definition and its types

Drought impacts on chemical ecology of wild plants

Drought creating hyper-tropical climate and its impacts on tropical rain forests

Role of drought in chemical ecology of agricultural crops

13 Plant-pollinator interactions – Wind pollination and water pollination, biotic or animal pollination:

Chemical ecology of beetle pollination, fly pollination and ant pollination

Wind pollination (Anemophily)

Water pollination (Hydrophily)

Biotic or animal pollination (Zoophily)

Insect pollination (Entomophily)

Chemical ecology of beetle-pollination (Cantharophily)

Chemical ecology of fly-pollination (Myophily)

Chemical ecology of ant-pollination (Myrmecophily)

14 Chemical ecology of plant-bee interactions and bee-pollination

Social bees

Chemical ecology of honey bees

Chemical ecology of stingless bees

Chemical ecology of bumble bees

Solitary bees

Chemical ecology of carpenter bees

Chemical ecology of digger bees

Chemical ecology of leaf-cutter bees

Chemical ecology of mason bees

Chemical ecology of mining bees

Chemical ecology of sweat bees

Chemical ecology of plant-bee interactions and bee-pollination (melittophily)

15 Chemical ecology of plant-wasp interactions, larval hosts and wasp-pollination

Social wasps

The Yellow Jackets

Hornets

Paper wasps

Solitary wasps

Spider wasps

Cuckoo wasps

Potter wasps

Thread-waisted wasps

Digger wasps

Velvet ants

Tiphiid wasps

Scoliid wasps

Pollen wasps

Wasp-pollination (Specophily)

16 Butterflies – Classification and Chemical ecology of larval host plants, floral resources and pollination

Papilionidae

Pieridae

Nymphalidae

Lycaenidae

Riodinidae

Hesperiidae

Butterfly-pollination (Psychophily)

Chemical communication between butterflies and their larval host plants

Plant-derived pyrrolizidine alkaloids and their importance in butterfly mating and protection

against predators

17 Moths – Classification, Chemical ecology of larval host plants, floral resources and pollination

Diurnal diel activity pattern of moths

Nocturnal diel activity pattern of moths

Cathemeral diel activity pattern of moths

Crepuscular diel activity pattern of moths

Moth-pollination (Phalaenophily)

18 Chemical ecology of plant-thrips interactions and thrips-pollination

Suborder: Terebrantia

Thripidae

Aeolothripidae

Melanthripidae

Merothripidae

Heterothripidae

Suborder: Tubulifera

Subfamily Idolothripinae

Subfamily Phlaeothripinae

Thrips-pollination (Thripophily)

19 Chemical ecology of plant-bird interactions and bird-pollination

Flower-visiting birds

Bird-pollination (Ornithophily)

Chemical communication between birds and flowering plants

Chemical communication between birds and their nest material selection

Air pollution impacts on urban birds

Plastic pollution on urban birds

20 Chemical ecology of plant-bat interactions and bat-pollination

Yinpterochiroptera

Yangochiroptera

Chemical communication in bats

Chemical communication between flower-feeding bats and floral rewards

Bat-pollination (Chiropterophily)

Chemical communication between fruit-eating bats and their food sources

Chemical communication between bats and their insect and carnivorous plant food sources

Chemical communication between blood-feeding bats and blood sources

Impacts of pollution on chemical communication between bats and their food sources

21 Chemical ecology of floral rewards, microbial contamination, pollinators and air pollution impacts on microbes of floral rewards

Chemical ecology of nectar fungi

Chemical ecology of nectar bacteria

Chemical ecology of pollen fungi

Chemical ecology of pollen bacteria

Chemical ecology of pollinator fungi and bacteria and nectar contamination

Air pollution impacts on nectar and pollen microbes

22 Chemical ecology of fruit and seed defense  

Chemical ecology of fruit defense

Chemical ecology of seed defense

Artificial fruit ripening and human health

23 Phytoliths as chemical defenses in vascular plants

Phytoliths

Phytolith-occluded carbon (PhyOC)

Calciphytoliths

Cystoliths

24 Volatile trees, air pollution and air quality

Emissions of volatile organic compounds from trees

Emissions of volatile organic compounds from trees versus air pollution and air quality

Emission rates of volatile organic compounds by trees in tropical and temperate regions

Seasonal influence on emission rates of volatile organic compounds by trees

Role of volatile organic compounds in intra-specific chemical communication of trees

Emissions of volatile organic compounds from trees and urban environment

Impacts of volatile organic compounds from trees on human health

Negative health impacts

Positive health impacts

Role of tree bark microbes in air quality

25 Global climate change, plant-insect interactions, insect pests and crop production

Global climate change

Global climate change effects on plant-insect interactions and insect pests

Global climate change impacts on temperate plants

Global climate change impacts on tropical plants

Global climate change impacts on plant- insect/pest interactions

Chemical ecology is increasingly recognized as a vital, mature, and rapidly growing scientific field that investigates how chemical mediate interactions between organisms and their environment.  Once focused primarily on plant-insect interactions, this field now spans all life forms and ecosystems, bridging fundamental research with sustainable practical applications, particularly biodiversity preservation, pest management and mitigating the impacts of climate change and anthropogenic pollution. Further, this field is actively expanding into new areas like micro-biomes and climate change mediated interactions between plants and animals. Keeping the importance of chemical ecology as the language of life in view, the author has produced this text with a consilient perspective to refocus attention at the exciting interfaces and endless interactions, both positive and negative, among diverse plants and animals in nature.  This text is presented not just as a special subject but as the foundational chemistry mediating ecosystem structure, biodiversity, and evolution.  It demonstrates that chemical ecology is not just a study of molecules but a critical multi-disciplinary approach to understanding life on Earth. The text begins with the definition, scope and importance of chemical ecology.  Then, it sequentially introduces the subject detailing the primary metabolites, secondary metabolites, semio-chemicals, air pollution, heavy metal pollution (effects on plants and animals – clean-up of heavy metals), biogenic volatiles and their role in ecological interactions, atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations and their impacts on plant-insect herbivore interactions, soil chemical ecology (allelopathy and allelochemicals), weed chemical ecology, chemical defense in organisms of terrestrial and aquatic environments, drought impacts on chemical ecology of plants, chemical ecology of plant-pollinator interactions and larval host plants of wasps, butterflies and moths, floral rewards, microbial contamination, air pollution impacts on microbes of floral rewards, and fruit and seed defense, phytoliths as chemical defenses in vascular plants, volatile trees, air pollution and air quality, global climate change, plant-insect interactions, insect pests and crop production, effects of climate extreme conditions on plant chemical composition, micro-plastics and their effects on plant growth, plant community, litter decomposition and soil microbial community, chemical ecology  of urban airborne bio-pollution and forensic chemical ecology. Lastly, the text presents the importance of remote sensing and geographical information systems in chemical ecology. The text is written based on all pertinent references and includes 91 figures. 
Besides its overall utility for all biologists, chemists, soil scientists, ecologists, environmental scientists, this text book would serve as a balanced undergraduate/graduate subject for integrated and non-integrated courses in general biology, plant science, animal science, chemistry, ecology, insect science, ornithology and forensic science.   Further, this text should be of special interest to foresters, physiologists, pathologists and population biologists.
Aluri Jacob Solomon Raju is Honorary Professor of Environmental Sciences, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam.  He is the author of well known works such as Indian Plant Reproductive Ecology and Biodiversity published by Today and Tomorrow’s Printers and Publishers, New Delhi; Ecotourism, Ecorestoration and Sustainable Development by New Central Book Agency (P) Ltd., Kolkata; Ecological Resources Conservation and Management, and Global Warming: Myth or Reality by M.D. Publications Ltd., New Delhi; Reproductive ecology of Dry season Ornithophilous tree species, and  Nesting behavior and foraging ecology of Trigona iridipennis: Nest structure, function and foraging ecology by VDM Verlag Dr. Muller Aktiengescellschaft & Co.,Germany; Reproductive Ecology of Cycas beddomei and C. sphaerica (Cycadaceae) and Pollination biology of Decalepis hamiltonii and Shorea tumbuggaia by Lambert Academic Publishing AG & Co., Germany.